Abruzzi, a region in east-central Italy,
with an area of 4,167 square miles (10,792 sq km). It comprises the provinces
of L'Aquila (Aquila), Teramo, Pescara, and Chieti and is bounded by the
regions of the Marches and Umbria on the north, Umbria on the northwest,
Latium on the southwest, Campania on the south, Molise on the southwest,
and the Adriatic Sea on the east.
The region is first mentioned in a.d. 600 as Aprutium,
the name given to the bishopric of Teramo and its diocese. The Normans
later popularized the name "Abruzzo." The division of the area by the Pescara
River into "Abruzzo Ultra" and "Abruzzo Citra" explains the plural form
of the word "Abruzzi."
Abruzzi is made up of two distinct physiographic
areas of almost equal size. The central Apennines, with high valleys and
basins, form the western area, which coincides with the province of L'Aquila.
This Apennine region comprises three roughly parallel ranges running from
northwest to southeast and attaining heights of 8,200 feet (2,499 meters)
in Monte Velino, 9,170 feet (2,800 meters) in La Maiella, and 9,554 feet
(2,912 meters) in Monte Corno, in the Gran Sasso d'Italia. Between the
mountains lie the drained basin of Lake Fucino and the upper valleys of
the Aterno, the Salto, the Liri, and the Sangro rivers. The three coastal
provinces of Teramo, Pescara, and Chieti, which lie between the Apennines
and the Adriatic, make up the other physiographic area. This is a region
of clay and sand hills and parallel valleys, the most important being those
of the Tronto, Tordino, Vomano, Fino, Pescara, Sangro, and Trigno rivers.
The Abruzzi region, particularly the central
portion, is subject to disastrous earthquakes, and landslides and avalanches
are common on the eroded hills of the eastern zones. The mouth of the Pescara
and the promontory at Ortona offer the only anchorage along the 80-mile
(130-km) coastline.
The climate varies with the altitude. The
coastal regions have moderate temperatures, but winters in the mountains
are long and cold. Snow sometimes lasts from November to May. Rainfall
is sufficient for agriculture, varying from about 50 inches (1,270 mm)
in the highlands to 28 inches (710 mm) in the valleys.
Agriculture is usually carried on above
the chestnut woods that flank the steep slopes. The plateaus on the gentler
slopes support potato and cereal farming and pastureland for grazing. Above
this zone the meadows are seasonally occupied by flocks of sheep. The basins
between the mountains, most notably Fucino, where the Romans first drained
the lake of Avezzano, are of greatest agricultural significance. This basin
was permanently reclaimed at the end of the 19th century.
The Adriatic hills have a much milder climate
and soils that favor autumn-sown crops and tree crops, such as olive trees
and grape vines. The latter, although prominent near the coast, occupy
only 5 percent of the cultivated land. The majority of the land is used
for growing cereals.
Generally, the coastal lands below 1,500
feet (460 meters) have intensive systems of mixed cropping and specialized
vineyards. Between 1,500 and 2,800 feet (460-850 meters), cereal predominates;
and above that altitude, degraded woodlands are important.
The region is not very industrialized, although there
are sugar, chemical, and fertilizer plants at Avezzano and paper mills
and copper works at Sulmona.
Population
It is estimated that the Abruzzi region together
with neighboring Molise had about 520,000 people at the end of the 16th
century. The population rose somewhat irregularly to 1,689,500 in 1957.
The coastal regions and the basins of Fucino, L'Aquila, and Sulmona are
the most populous areas. In 1991 the population of Abruzzi was 1,243,690.
The principal cities are the provincial
capitals of L'Aquila, in the valley of the Aterno; Teramo, on the Tordino;
Pescara, on the Adriatic; and Chieti. Others of some importance are Sulmona,
on the Gizio, the birthplace of Ovid; Celano to the east and Avezzano to
the west of Lake Fucino; and Ortona, on the coast, south of Chieti.
History
In ancient times Abruzzi, was occupied by several peoples, including the Equi, Marsi, and Vestini, who were conquered by the Romans before the third century b.c. After the decline of the Roman Empire the region broke up into small feudal states more or less under Lombard rule. The Normans later subjugated most of the Abruzzi. They were followed by the Hohenstaufen, Aragonese, and Spanish Hapsburgs. The Bourbons, in the 18th century, were the last foreign rulers. By the early 19th century small liberal groups were taking part in revolutionary activities, and in 1860 the region became part of united Italy. In 1948 Abruzzi was joined with Molise, to the south, to form the region of Abruzzi e Molise; but in 1963 Abruzzi was separated from Molise.
Aosta, a city
in northwest Piedmont, in northern Italy, and the capital of the semiautonomous
region known as the Valle d'Aosta. Aosta is about 50 miles (80 km) northwest
of Turin, near the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea rivers,
at 1,800 feet (550 meters) above sea level. It lies in a pleasant valley
surrounded on three sides by some of the highest peaks of the Alps, including
Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, and the Gran Paradiso. Since early times Aosta
has been important as the meeting place of the transalpine routes over
the Great and the Little Saint Bernard passes to France and Switzerland.
The city is the administrative
and market center for the Valle d'Aosta. It is also the starting point
for excursions to scenic and sports areas in the surrounding mountains,
and the tourist trade is an important source of income. During World War
I the abundance of electricity encouraged the growth of iron works using
the ore of nearby Cogne. In recent years chemical and textile industries
have been developed. Following the Roman plan, the city is laid out with
straight streets crossing at right angles. There are numerous remains of
the Roman city, including the Praetorian Gate, the Arch of Augustus,
a theater, an amphitheater, and the old walls (chiefly on the west and
south). Among the interesting medieval structures are the cathedral, begun
before the 12th century, and the Collegiata of Sant'Orso, with its cloister
and priory. Pop. 1991, 36,095.
Valle d'Aosta
The Valle d'Aosta,
covering 1,259 square miles (3,261 sq km), corresponds to about two thirds
of the pre-World War II province of Aosta. The remainder of the former
province was joined to the province of Turin or ceded to France. The valley
was given semiautonomous status on Jan. 31, 1948 and is administered by
the 35-member Council of the Valley. The president of the council is responsible
directly to the Italian government. Both French and Italian are recognized
as official languages of the valley.
The Valle d'Aosta
consists of the upper basin of the Dora Baltea, together with the Orco
Valley. Heavily glaciated, it is wider than neighboring valleys and is
relatively well populated. The valley has a level plain where agriculture
is carried on. Snow and glacier-fed sources provide an abundant water supply,
which has been harnessed for hydroelectricity.
The valley is sheltered and has
relatively low precipitation. Vines and fruit trees are grown on the lower
slopes and cereals on the level plateaus. Hay meadows are cultivated at
all altitudes but primarily through irrigation on the valley floor. There
are textile mills at Châtillon and textile and iron and steel factories
at Aosta, the regional capital. Anthracite is mined at La Thuile. Tourism
is important, and there are popular resorts at Courmayeur, Gressoney, and
Cervinia-Breuil. The world's longest vehicular tunnel, under Mont Blanc,
between Italy and France, was opened in July 1965, and the valley has since
become an important highway.
When the Romans conquered
the Valle d'Aosta from the Ligurian-Celtic tribes -- the Salassi -- about
26 b.c., they set up Augusta Praetoria as a rectangular walled camp garrisoned
by three thousand Praetorians. After the Romans came the Goths, Byzantines,
Lombards, Franks, and Burgundians -- with Saracen forays doing much
damage. By the 11th century the House of Savoy had taken over control of
the area. Except for brief periods of French occupation (1691, 1704-1706,
1798-1799, and 1800-1814), the region remained under the Savoy dynasty
until 1945. The secondary branch of the House of Savoy is headed by the
dukes of Aosta. Pop. 1991, 115,397.
Apulia (Ital.
Puglia or Le Puglie), a modern region and an ancient district of Italy,
lying along the lower Adriatic coast from the Monte Gargano Promontory
southeastward to the tip of the Salentine Peninsula. Modern Apulia, with
an area of 7,470 square miles (19,347 sq km), includes the five provinces
of Foggia, Bari, Brindisi, Lecce, and Taranto. Apulia is bounded on the
northeast and east by the Adriatic Sea and the Strait of Otranto, on the
south by the Gulf of Taranto, on the west by the Basilicata and Campania
regions, and on the northwest by the Molise region.
Topographically
Apulia consists of the mountainous peninsula of Monte Gargano; the Tavoliere,
or lowland, of Foggia; the terraced limestone Murgian Hills; the coastal
plain between the latter and the Adriatic Sea, extending from Barletta
to Brindisi; and the low and fairly level Salentine Peninsula, which is
known as the heel of Italy. The high point of Monte Gargano is 3,480 feet
(1,060 meters) above sea level, and that of the Murgian Hills, about 2,200
feet (670 meters). The highest elevations in Apulia are in the Neapolitan
Apennines, which form the western border of the province of Foggia. Although
the region has a coastline of some 800 miles (1,290 km), it has few good
natural harbors, Brindisi and Taranto being the best. Shifting sand bars
along parts of the coast are hazards to navigation. The climate of Apulia
varies somewhat with altitude and latitude, but in general it is characterized
by hot summers and moderate winters. The annual rainfall averages between
20 and 30 inches (500-750 mm), most of which comes in the early winter
and runs off rapidly or disappears into the ground. There are thus few
permanent streams south of the Ofanto River, which divides the provinces
of Foggia and Bari. The Tavoliere of Foggia is crossed by a number of small
rivers that descend from the Apennines. Because of the climatic conditions,
the Mediterranean brush, or macchia, is the typical form of natural vegetation.
There are forests only in the eastern Monte Gargano and in certain areas
of the Murgian Hills.
The People
The population of the region is very unevenly distributed, there being wide areas with a very low density in the hills and on the Tavoliere. The province of Bari is the most densely populated, and Foggia is the most sparsely populated. However, the density of the region as a whole is only slightly lower than that of all of Italy. The tendency to live in urban communities, common throughout southern Italy, is so accentuated in Apulia that only about 8 percent of the people live in scattered dwellings. As a result of the land reform of the 1950's, however, the proportion of people in isolated dwellings doubled by 1960. The proportion of towns and cities with over 20,000 inhabitants is high and indicates the extent of urban concentration even in exclusively agricultural areas. The principal city is Bari, the regional capital (pop. 1991, 341,273), and Taranto is the second city (232,200). Barletta, Molfetta, Brindisi, and Lecce are other major centers.
Economic Life
Apulia is one
of the driest regions of Italy; most of the area has less than 20 inches
(500 mm) of rainfall, concentrated into 65 days annually. Since much of
it has bare exposures of limestone, it has been called "a kingdom of drought
and stone." There is a marked contrast, however, between the High Murge,
a windswept moorland of poor pastures, and the orchard lands of the Low
Murge, especially the fertile land of the Terra di Bari region, surrounding
Apulia's capital. These orchard lands, covered by olives, vines, and almonds,
produce two thirds, by value, of the total agricultural output. Figs and
tobacco are grown in the Salentine Peninsula and the oats and cereal production
of the Tavoliere is important to the economic life of the region.
In the cereal-producing
and pasturage lands of the Tavoliere and the High Murge, large estates
are the characteristic form of land holding, whereas in the Low Murge the
development of orchards has encouraged small family holdings. Extensive
irrigation schemes are being developed in the Tavoliere and on the Metaponto
plain west of Taranto. Of major importance is the Apulian Aqueduct, diverting
the Sele River. Through a 150-mile (240-km) pipeline, it supplies water
to some 400 centers, and there are 1,500 miles (2,400 km) of subsidiary
channels that extend to the tip of the peninsula.
Industrial activity
is closely allied with the processing of agricultural products. Olive oil
mills, flour mills, pasta plants, and other food industries, together with
clothing industries, employ almost half of the industrial labor force.
Fishing is important at numerous ports, notably around the Monte Gargano,
on the Tavoliere coast, and the major ports of Terra di Bari, such as Barletta,
Trani, Molfetta, Bari, and Monopoli. Oysters are important products of
Brindisi and Taranto. There are salt works at Margherita di Savoia, niter
is extracted near Molfetta, and chemical works related to both these raw
materials are rapidly developing. The largest industrial plants, however,
are the petroleum refineries at Bari and Brindisi, and especially the modern
iron and steel mills at Taranto. There are also shipyards at Taranto, which
is one of the major industrial towns of southern Italy. Pop. 1991, 3,986,430.
History
The early tribes
of Apulia were the Daunii in the north and the Peucetii in the south. These
were Italic tribes having close political connections with the Samnites.
The origin of the Apulian tribes appears to have been Illyrian, and their
dialects are generally classified as Messapic, although a long inscription
in Oscan has been found at Bantia. The Apulian people were exposed to Greek
influences in the Classical period after the foundation of Tarentum (c.
708 b.c.). Their religion was modified, and they began to make pottery
which they decorated in the prevailing Greek fashion. Apulia became Roman
territory after the Second Punic War, during which it was the scene of
Roman-Carthaginian conflicts, notably the battle of Cannae (216 b.c.),
Hannibal's famous victory on the banks of the Ofanto River. The Romans
long regarded the area as lacking in culture, despite the fact that
the poets Livius Andronicus (fl. third century b.c.) and Quintus Ennius
(239-c. 169 b.c.) had their origin there.
After forming part
of the Roman domain for some seven centuries, Apulia was fought over in
the fifth century a.d. by Goths, Lombards, Saracens, and Byzantines. In
the 11th century, under the rule of Norman adventurers, Apulia became a
duchy. The Normans were succeeded by the Hohenstaufen rulers. Most famous
of these was Frederick II (1194-1250), who erected a number of fortresses
and castles, including Castel del Monte and Lucera, and spent much of his
remarkable career there.
Further wars were
engendered by the claims and counterclaims of the houses of Anjou, Aragon,
and Hapsburg; but Apulia managed, nevertheless, to enjoy occasional periods
of respite and prosperity. The Venetian Republic obtained trading privileges
in Apulian ports, an arrangement that proved to be mutually advantageous.
Beginning in 1734, the Bourbons established their rule over the region;
and during the early decades of the Bourbon period Apulia contributed many
illustrious men to the political and cultural life of the Kingdom of the
Two Sicilies, of which Apulia was then a part. During the early 19th century,
Apulia also contributed leaders to the various liberal and revolutionary
movements that ended in the unification of Italy in 1860. In 1861 Apulia
became part of the Kingdom of Italy. Since that date, life in Apulia has
become more closely linked with that in the rest of Italy.
Basilicata,
formerly known as Lucania, a modern region of southern Italy. It is a generally
poor and mountainous area that fronts on the Gulf of Taranto in the Ionian
Sea and on the Gulf of Policastro in the Tyrrhenian Sea. Basilicata extends
northward to the Ofanto River. The western half forms part of the Lucanian
Apennines, where elevations exceed 6,000 feet (1,830 meters). From these
highlands the terrain slopes southeastward to the Ionian Sea. Except for
the sections in the extreme north and southwest, the region drains into
the Gulf of Taranto. The chief rivers are the Sinni, Agri, Basento, and
Bradano.
Basilicata is situated
in a zone of periodic and disastrous earthquakes, which were especially
severe in the 19th century. The climate, to a large extent, varies with
the altitude, being colder and damper in the mountains than in the lowlands.
There is also more rainfall on the western slope than on the eastern. The
natural vegetation varies with altitude and climate, from Alpine types
on the heights to the typically Mediterranean at sea level. The chief crops
are cereals, grapes, olives, potatoes, and fruit. Basilicata comprises
Potenza and Matera provinces, with a total area of 3,856 square miles (9,987
sq km) and a population of about 605,940 in 1991. The most populous area
is the hilly fertile zone of the Vulture Mountains, located in the northern
part of Potenza Province.
The people are a mixture of ethnic
elements: Italian, Greek, Lombard, Arab, Norman, Albanian, and others.
History
In the Classical era, modern Basilicata formed part of the region called Lucania and shared its political history: Greek colonization along the coast; war between the local Italic peoples and expanding Rome, ending in the victory of the Romans; integration into the Roman Empire, and then decay as the Empire declined; the invasion of Goths, Lombards, Byzantines, Arabs, Normans, Spaniards, and French. With the decline of Rome, the inhabitants of the once flourishing coastal area took to the hills in search of refuge from marauding bands of Germans and Saracens. After the unification of Italy, the inefficient administration of the Bourbons gave way to the fiscal exactions of the north Italian bureaucracy. Creditors seized lands, deforestation ruined the soil and spread malarial swampland, and emigration increased. Basilicata has long been one the poorest regions in Italy.
Calabria, a region occupying the southernmost peninsula, or toe, of the Italian mainland. The name originally applied to the heel of Italy (the Salentine Peninsula) and the instep (Lucania), as well as to the toe (ager Bruttium). Since medieval times Calabria has designated only the toe, and since Bourbon rule it has comprised the provinces of Cosenza, Catanzaro, and Reggio di Calabria. Calabria's capital city is Catanzaro.
Topography
Calabria, covering an area of 5,822 square miles (15,079 sq km) is 175 miles (281 km) long and varies in width from 20 to 72 miles (32-115 km). Bounded to the north by Mount Pollino, the region is generally mountainous, with elevations from 6,000 to 8,000 feet (1,850-2,400 meters). South of the high central plateau of the Sila, the Catanzaro basin divides Calabria in two. Coastal plains are narrow, and in some places the mountains seem to rise from the sea. The coast is devoid of islands and has few indentations, with only two mediocre natural harbors at Reggio di Calabria and Crotone. The peninsula is subject to frequent seismic disturbances, 30 disastrous earthquakes having occurred since the 12th century.
Climate
The climate depends on the altitude, with typically Mediterranean conditions prevailing in the lower and middle zones. Summers are hot, winters cool; rainfall in the winter varies from 20 to 35 inches (500-900 mm). On the plateaus, however, winters are cold with much snow, and the annual precipitation averages over 55 inches (1,400 mm). The water dissipates rapidly, and most Calabrian streams are trickles in the summer. The natural vegetation ranges from subtropical at sea level to alpine pastures and woodlands in the uplands (Sila).
Population
The population of Calabria,
2,037,686 in 1991 compared with 1,240,000 in 1861, has increased rather
slowly because of the slow development of natural resources, the former
prevalence of malaria and other endemic diseases, the frequency of earthquakes,
poor communications, and the resultant emigration. Between 1901 and 1914
some 675,000 Calabrians emigrated, primarily to the United States, Argentina,
Brazil, and France.
The population is
unevenly distributed. About 30 percent of the people live in the coastal
zone up to 800 feet (245 meters), mostly in scattered dwellings. The balance
of the population lives inland, 60 percent between 800 and 2,500 feet (245-750
meters), and the remainder at 2,500 to 3,250 feet (750-1,000 meters). Ethnically
the Calabrians are fairly homogeneous, despite infusions of Arab, African,
Greek, and Albanian elements during the Middle Ages. In the northeast are
Albanian villages, founded in the 15th century. The region's few towns
are mostly on or near the coast. Reggio di Calabria (pop. 1991, 178,496)
and Crotone (54,300), an industrial center since the late 1920's, are Greek
in origin. Catanzaro (103,802) was founded in the 11th century. Cosenza
(104,483) is the only important town in the interior.
Economic Life
A large part of Calabria
is covered with woodlands and forests of larch and beech, with some oak
and chestnut trees. It is one of the richest sources of timber in Italy,
and the forest reserves have been better preserved there than elsewhere
because of the region's isolation. The raising of livestock on the Sila
and Aspromonte uplands is an important economic activity, and there is
a growing emphasis on dairying and pig raising. Although wheat is raised,
Calabria is not primarily a cereal region, and olives, citrus fruits, and
wine grapes are of greater economic importance. Despite its agricultural
potential, Calabria is still a poor region, lacking adequate communications
and industrial opportunities. Reggio di Calabria is the terminus of the
two coastal railroads, one from Naples and one from Bari and Taranto on
the Ionian coast. The roads are poor.
About one third of
the industrial labor force is employed in food or allied industries, notably
olive oil refining and the making of pasta at Cosenza. There is a large
beet sugar mill at Santa Eufemia, and there are woolen mills at Cetraro
and Praja a Mare in the northwest. However, the major industrial units
are the chemical and zinc refinery plants at Crotone, developed since 1927
with the aid of hydroelectric power from the Sila River. Reggio di Calabria
also has a number of industries associated with wood. Tourism, although
not now a major source of income, has considerable potential, particularly
at the numerous small coastal resorts and thermal springs.
History
The eastern coast of
the Calabrian Peninsula formed part of Magna Graecia, and such Greek colonies
as Sybaris, Crotona, Locri, and Rhegium played important roles in the history
of Hellenic politics and culture. Their influence, however, was confined
largely to the coast, for inland were the Bruttii, who blocked Rome's expansion
southward. Following the disintegration of the Empire, Byzantine rule was
asserted after a confused period of Gothic and other Germanic invasions.
In the tenth century Calabria was united as a theme under the Byzantine
Emperor Nicephorus Phocas II. Constantinople, however, was unable to promote
prosperity or offer protection against Arab raids. Commerce declined, malaria
spread over the lowlands, and the large estates (latifundia) gripped the
land in their social and economic tentacles. In the 11th century the Normans
drove out the Byzantines, and under Norman and Hohenstaufen feudal rule
that region enjoyed peace if not liberty, whereas decay set in under the
successive Angevin, Aragonese, and Hapsburg houses. The Spanish and Austrian
rulers took little interest in Calabria and allowed the feudal barons to
reassert some of their power, to the detriment of peasants and citizens
alike.
When the Bourbons
assumed power early in the 18th century, they at first enlisted the strong
support of the people. Later on, however, after the Napoleonic era, the
Masonic, Carbonari, and other liberal and republican movements gained warm
adherents in Calabria; and in 1860 the region fell to Garibaldi's forces.
Following unification, the Italian government undertook to stamp out brigandage,
illiteracy, malaria, and other age-old problems, but because of the region's
backwardness and poverty these efforts met with little success.
On Sept. 3, 1943,
during World War II, the British Eighth Army crossed the Strait of Messina
to land with little opposition in Calabria along a coastal strip stretching
from Reggio di Calabria to Crotone. The capture within less than a fortnight
of three seaports and ten airfields in Calabria and Apulia enabled the
Allies to launch large-scale operations against Naples and other major
Italian cities. In 1968 Calabria was made one of 15 "ordinary regions"
of Italy, with a regional council at Catanzaro possessing administrative
and legislative powers over local issues and a degree of financial autonomy.
Severe riots in Reggio di Calabria followed the choice of Catanzaro as
capital, but in 1971 the central government reiterated its decision.
Campania, a
region in the southern part of Italy, comprising the area on the west coast
of the peninsula along the Tyrrhenian Sea, between the Garigliano River
on the north and the Gulf of Policastro on the south. Campania extends
inland to the easternmost range of the Apennines and includes a large proportion
of mountainous country. Also within the region are the islands of Capri,
Procida, and Ischia. The modern Campania thus refers to a much wider area
than did its ancient counterpart, ager Campanus, which was confined essentially
to the plain behind Naples. Campania comprises the provinces of Avellino,
Naples, Salerno, Benevento, and Caserta. It covers an area of 5,249 square
miles.
Topography. Economically and historically
the coastal plains are the most important part of the region and contain
a large part of the population in spite of the presence of Mount Vesuvius.
The soil of the Campanian Plain, which lies between the lower Garigliano
and the Sarno lowland in the south, is extremely fertile, particularly
west and north of Naples, where it is of volcanic origin. The Campi Flegrei,
located in the western part of the province of Naples, forms a zone of
hot springs and extinct volcanic matter, while Vesuvius is still active.
The Plain of Paestum, along the Gulf of Salerno in the south, is composed
of material deposited by the Sele River and its tributaries.
The mountainous zones comprise
the interior and also the peninsula of Sorrento, projecting 25 miles into
the Bay of Naples, and the Cilento Peninsula, which is situated between
the Gulf of Salerno and the Gulf of Policastro. Several roughly parallel
chains or massifs provide the backbone of the mountainous zone. In the
north is the Matese (6,300 feet); in the center, the Monti Picentini (6,000
feet); and in the Cilento Peninsula, several isolated peaks, of which the
highest is Monte Cervati (6,200 feet). Except for its easternmost edge,
Campania lies within the Tyrrhenian watershed. Its chief rivers are the
Sele, Volturno, and Garigliano.
Climate. The wide variation in
topography results in similarly marked differences in climate within the
region. The coastal regions and the adjacent plains enjoy hot summers and
moderately cool winters, as is evident from the palms and other subtropical
vegetation found there. The highlands are not only colder in winter, but
receive much more rain, as much as 75 inches, compared with 40 or 35 along
the coast. The rainy season comes in late fall and early winter; the summers
are generally dry.
Flora. The natural vegetation,
in turn, reflects topographic and climatic conditions. Up to 1,300 feet,
thickets, shrubs, and plane trees are found. On the middle slopes of the
mountains, there are oak and other deciduous trees; and above the timber
line are beech and fir, interspersed with pasture lands.
Population. About 85 percent of
the population of Campania (pop. 1991, 5,589,587) live in urban centers.
About two dozen cities have a population of over 15,000 and nearly all
of these are on the Bay of Naples and in the fertile Campanian Plain. The
chief industrial towns are Naples (pop. 1991, 1,024,601) and Salerno (pop.
1991,153,436). Rural population densities are irregular.
Only in recent decades has the
population of Campania increased to any extent. The census records from
1861 to 1921 showed only a small increase, while the record for 1911 even
showed a decrease over previous censuses. The emigration after the unification
of Italy was the primary reason for the slow rate of population growth
in the region, but the malarial conditions of the coastal lowlands and
the unproductivity of the mountain areas were contributing factors. During
the first fifteen years of the twentieth century the number of emigrants,
most of whom went to the United States or Argentina, reached 1,000,000.
The number dropped during World War I, but mounted again in 1920 to 82,779.
Later the Fascist regime discouraged and eventually forbade emigration,
and the rate dropped sharply.
Economic Activities. Agriculture
is the main source of wealth in Campania, and the most important farming
areas are in the lowlands of the Campanian Plain and the Terra di Lavoro,
west and north of Naples. The soil is exceptionally fertile, particularly
where it is of volcanic origin, and can sometimes support four layers of
crops: vegetables, vines, fruit trees, and walnuts. Fruits are the major
crop, and the region grows over half the national output of apricots, walnuts,
and hazlenuts; between one fifth and one fourth of the national production
of plums, cherries, and figs; and about ten percent of the apples, pears,
and peaches. Truck gardening is also important, and about a quarter of
the total national crop of potatoes, tomatoes, and cauliflowers is grown
in Campania. Hemp growing is carried on in Aversa.
Before the unification of Italy,
Campania was the most industrialized area of southern Italy, and at one
time the peninsula's major factories were located there: the military arsenal
at Naples; the Castellammare shipyards; and the arms factories, foundries,
and textile mills around Naples, Salerno, and Casserta. After the unification,
however, its industrial status declined due to a lack of government support.
Today four fifths of Campania's industrial development is in small or medium-sized
factories associated with food processing, engineering, textiles, and lumber
industries. The steel mills at Bagnoli, the aircraft factories, the Royal
Arsenal, and the petroleum refineries around Naples are all exceptional
in size. Quarrying, especially for pozzolana, used in cement, is also important.
Tourism is of major economic significance in the Naples area, and the port
of Naples is the second largest in Italy, handling considerable volume
in passenger and commercial traffic.
History. The coastal area of Campania, especially around Naples, was colonized by the Greeks, whereas the mountainous interior was occupied by the Samnites and other Italic tribes. Campania was one of the early conquests of Rome, and as an important coastal and seaport area it played an important part in the expansion of her empire. After the disintegration of the Roman Empire, however, Byzantine rule was established along the coast. Lombard rule was established over the principality of Benevento and later over the principalities of Salerno and Capua in the interior. As the Byzantine power waned, Naples, Sorrento, and Amalfi became largely self-governing. This politically fragmented condition made the conquest of Campania by the Normans fairly easy. Starting with the county of Aversa in 1030, they expanded in all directions until, by 1139, even Naples fell to them. Thenceforth, the region was governed by the Normans, and by the Hohenstaufens, Angevins, Aragonese, Spanish, and Bourbons as part of the Kingdom of Naples, or the Two Sicilies. In 1860 Campania joined united Italy. The Campania region was heavily bombed and damaged during World War II.
Emilia-Romagna,
a region in northern Italy, lying between the lower Po River, the Apennines,
and the Adriatic Sea. Formerly called Emilia, it is bounded on the south
by Tuscany and the Marches, on the west by Liguria and Lombardy, on the
north by Lombardy and Veneto, and on the east by the Adriatic Sea. It has
an area of 8,542 square miles (22,124 sq km) and consists of the provinces
of Piacenza, Parma, Reggio nell'Emilia, Modena, Bologna, and Ferrara, all
in the Emilia district, and Forlì and Ravenna, in Romagna.
Geography. The region's topography
is characterized by the Po Plain in the east and north and the Apennine
highlands in the south. The rivers of Emilia-Romagna rise in the Apennine
highlands and flow in a generally northeasterly direction. The Reno, Santerno,
Senio, Montone, Ronco, Savio, and Marecchia rivers empty into the Adriatic,
and the Trebbia, Taro, Enza, Secchia, and Panaro empty into the Po. Most
of the rivers are little more than torrential streams which dry up partially
in the summer and are seldom navigable, but they provide water for power
and for the essential irrigation systems. The interior sections have a
continental climate, with hot summers and cold winters. Along the sea,
where the climate is generally milder, the average annual rainfall is less
than 30 inches (750 mm), but considerably more rain falls in the mountain
areas.
Economic Activities. Emilia has
the highest value of agricultural production per capita in Italy. Cereals,
sugar beet, hay, wine, and vegetables, especially tomatoes, are the chief
products of the plain, and rice is grown in the marshy areas of the Po.
Dairying and cheesemaking, particularly of Parmesan cheese, are significant.
Flax, hemp, and mulberries are grown. Silkworm culture and the raising
of poultry and pigs are also important. In the hills the growing of cereals,
vines, olives, and fruit trees predominates, while on the mountains there
are forests of oak and chestnut trees as well as extensive summer pastures
for sheep.
The region's industrial activities
are traditionally associated with food processing, but engineering and
automobile production are also carried on. The discovery of natural
gas in the plain and near Ravenna since World War II has revolutionized
the region's industrial potential. Ravenna has a tanker port. There is
salt extraction and fishing on the coast.
Population. The population of the
region in 1991 was 3,899,170. The population is concentrated in the plains
and along the route of the old Roman Via Aemilia, on which lie the cities
of Rimini, Cesena, Forlì, Imola, Bologna, Modena, Reggio nell'Emilia,
Parma, and Piacenza. Bologna (pop. 1991, 411,803) is the major center of
the region.
History. Emilia is named from the Via Aemilia, laid out in 187 b.c. by the Roman Consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Following the decline of the Roman Empire, the region was held by the Goths and then by the Byzantine Empire, which established the Exarchate of Ravenna in the area. The Lombards finally overcame the Exarchate in the eighth century and divided northern Italy into Longobardia and Romania (the Exarchate). The Lombards, in turn, were subdued by the Franks, whose kings Pepin and Charlemagne conferred upon the Holy See a not too clearly defined area including Romagna. However, the claims of the Holy See meant little against the power of the Holy Roman emperors and local feudal nobility, notably Countess Matilda of Canossa. In the cities, as a rule, the local bishops acquired a dominant political position, thus preparing the way for the communes of the 11th and 12th centuries. In effect, however, the emperors maintained their authority in the region until 1278, when Rudolf of Hapsburg recognized papal sovereignty. Even then the Holy See made little headway against the claims of self-rule of the various communes and noble families, several of whom, such as the Este, had established local dynasties. Early in the 16th century, Pope Alexander VI and his son Cesare Borgia sought to gain control of the region, but failed, as did the French soon after. From the mid-16th century the Church controlled the eastern part of the region, and from 1796 to 1814 it was subject to French hegemony. The pope's rule was restored in 1814 but was maintained against his rebellious subjects only by Austrian arms. In 1859 the Austrians withdrew, and in 1860 the region joined Piedmont in the new Kingdom of Italy.
Friuli-Venezia
Giulia, the most northeastern region of Italy. The region has an area of
3,029 square miles (7,846 sq km) and comprises the provinces of Udine,
Trieste, and Gorizia. It is bounded on the north by the Carnic Alps along
the Austrian border, on the east by Yugoslavia, on the west by the region
of Veneto in Italy, and on the south by the Gulf of Venice in the Adriatic
Sea. In the southeast, a narrow strip of coastal territory, only 3 to 4
miles (4.8-6.4 km) wide, links the city of Trieste with Italy.
The northern half of Friuli-Venezia
Giulia is very mountainous, with elevations of over 9,000 feet (2,500 meters)
in the Carnic Alps. It has shallow infertile soils, except in a few valleys,
a continental type of climate, and the highest rainfall in Italy. The southern
half is a low coastal plain with more fertile soils, a more moderate climate,
and a less abundant rainfall. The largest river is the Tagliamento.
Lumbering and the raising of livestock
are the principal activities in the mountains. In the foothills, vines
and fruit trees, principally cherry trees, are grown. The high plain is
poor farming land where corn is the chief crop. On the low plains cereals
and corn are important.
At Predil lead and pitchblende
are mined. There are cement and pottery industries at Pordenone. The silk
industry, traditional to the region, has been linked with the cellulose
industry to produce new textile materials. Engineering at Udine, shipbuilding
at Trieste and Malfalcone, and a scattered number of food-processing, chemical,
paper, and textile factories are also important. Trieste (pop. 1991, 231,047)
and Udine (98,322) are the chief cities.
Once called the Julian region by
the Romans, parts of Friuli-Venezia Giulia have been controlled in the
past by such powers as the Byzantines, the Venetians, and the Hapsburgs.
However, the actual region was not formed until 1947, when Udine province
(formerly part of the Italian region of Veneto) and Gorizia province (a
small part of the former Italian province of Venezia Giulia, the remainder
of which was transferred to Yugoslavia and the Free Territory of Trieste
after World War II) were combined. The province of Trieste was added in
1954, when the United Nations gave Italy the control of the northern half
of the former Free Territory of Trieste, including the city of Trieste.
Since 1963, the region has been semiautonomous. Pop. 1991, 1,193,520.
Latium (It.
Lazio), a region on the westcentral coast of Italy, comprising the provinces
of Frosinone, Rieti, Latina, Rome, and Viterbo. It has an area of 6,642
square miles (17,203 sq km).
Originally the name Latium applied
only to the land of the Latini, a tribal area of limited extent on the
right bank of the Tiber River. Under Roman rule, Latium was extended to
include the entire area between the Tiber and Savo rivers. The region's
present boundaries were defined in 1927, with a minor change in 1945.
Topography. Latium has a varied
and complex geological structure with three major types of relief. More
than one third of central Latium consists of volcanic hills: the Volsini,
Cimini, and Sabatini hills north of the Tiber and the Alban hills to the
south. These hills contain many crater lakes, notably Bolsena, Vico, and
Bracciano in the north and Albano and Nemi to the south. In the lowlands
along the coast drainage is impeded by fossilized sand dunes and soil crusts.
The eastern border of Latium is framed by limestone mountains that rise
steeply from the Tiber Valley in the Sabine Mountains. The highest peak,
Monte Viglio, has an elevation of 7,074 feet (2,156 meters). Further south
are the Lefrini, Ausoni, and Aurinchi mountains.
Along the coast and in the Tiber
Valley, the summers are hot and the winters cool. Winters are colder in
the hills, and in the highlands the snow lasts for months. Rainfall varies
from about 25 inches (635 mm) along the coast to nearly 75 inches (1,900
mm) in the mountains.
Population. Latium had a population
of 5,031,020 in 1991. Its most densely populated communes are generally
in the hills and mountains. The exceptions are Rome, which contains more
than half the region's inhabitants; Civitavecchia, the only city of size
aside from Rome; Anzio; Nettuno; and Gaeta. About 80 percent of the people
live in urban centers.
Economic Resources. The economy
of Latium is based on agriculture rather than industry. Cereals are produced
extensively, although summer droughts lower the yields of wheat and corn
(maize). Almost one third of the land is still held in large estates, and
about one fourth of the land in small holdings of less than 12 acres (5
hectares). Specialized vineyards planted on the slopes of volcanic hills,
olives, and other tree crops account for almost half the total value of
agricultural production. About a third of the gross agricultural revenue
comes from livestock, notably from sheep raised in the mountains and cattle
bred near Rome.
Latium's industries are centered
in Rome. Food processing and the manufacture of textiles, chemicals, and
paper are the main activities. Asphalt is mined and marble is quarried.
Fishing is carried on from Civitavecchia, Latium's chief port, and from
Gaeta, Anzio, and Terracina. The tourist trade, also centered in Rome,
is significant.
History. The name Latium originally applied only to the land on the left bank of the Tiber River near and below Rome. The region extended generally southeast from Etruria toward Campania. Inhabited by the Latini, a Latin-speaking people of whom the historic Romans were an offshoot, Latium became the cradle of the Roman Empire. Following the disappearance of the empire in the west in the fourth century, Latium was overrun by Germanic peoples (including Visigoths, Vandals, Ostrogoths, and Lombards), by Greeks of the Byzantine Empire, and by Arabs from North Africa. Latium became the nucleus of the States of the Church (Papal States). Constant strife and neglect until the late 15th century took much of the land of Latium out of cultivation; malaria and famine also helped depopulate the region. Only after Latium became part of the Kingdom of Italy in 1870 were remedial steps taken. Under the kingdom, especially during the Fascist period, progress was made in reclaiming and irrigating the land.
Liguria, a modern
region of Italy, coextensive with the historic region of that name. It
is a strip of land along the north shore of the Ligurian Sea (the Gulf
of Genoa), with an average width of 15 miles between the mountains (Maritime
Alps and Ligurian Apennines) and the sea. It extends from the French frontier
at Grimaldi to Tuscany on the east. Liguria comprises the provinces of
Imperia, Savona, Genoa, and La Spezia and has a total area of 2,091 square
miles. In Roman times the region extended as far east as the valley of
the Po. Later the name "Liguria" ceased to have any meaning as practically
all of the territory was under the hegemony of the Republic of Genoa. The
name was revived in 1797 when, in the wake of the French invasion of Italy,
Napoleon created the Ligurian Republic. The modern region came into existence
in 1926.
Topography. The entire region is
undulating terrain, and the coast is generally rocky and studded with countless
small indentations. The mountainous hinterland is framed by the Alps to
the west and the Apennines to the east. The coastlands are divided into
the Riviera di Levante, east of Genoa, and the Riviera di Ponente, west
of Genoa. The former is a rocky coast, heavily forested, with an annual
rainfall of 60 to 80 inches. The Riviera di Ponente is more sheltered with
a drier, milder climate. The latter, particularly the area between Ventimiglia
and Alassio, is deservedly called the flower garden of Liguria. Between
the two coasts is the industrialized area of Genoa, sometimes called the
Riviera Centrala. The mountains rise steeply behind the coast, with Monte
Beigue, within 4 miles of the sea, reaching to 4,222 feet. From the French
frontier to the Cadibona Pass (Col d'Altare) near Savona where they join
the Apennines, the Alps present a formidable barrier, rising to summits
of over 6,000 feet. The Apennines are crossed by more passes and low gaps,
notably the passes of Turchino, Bocchetta, Giovi, and Scoffera. Further
south, however, the Apennines broaden into four parallel ranges, rising
in the interior to summits over 5,000 feet. Small rivers with steep courses
cut deeply into the mountains making narrow valleys.
Economic Resources. Careful forest
management since the 19th century has made Liguria one of the major timber
areas of Italy. About half of the region is forested. The rugged terrain
makes agriculture difficult, and only a small percentage of the population
is engaged in farming. The sloping hills, however, have been terraced for
the production of flowers, vegetables, and tree crops, and there small
holdings predominate. Olives, vines, and fruit trees occupy about a quarter
of the cultivated land, and the growing of flowers provides more than one
third of the agricultural income. Some livestock is raised in the mountains
and fishing is also of importance.
Manufacturing industries and commerce
are the principal economic activities of Liguria. Metallurgical and engineering
industries located along the coast at Genoa, La Spezia, and Savona employ
more than half of the industrial labor force. Shipbuilding yards at these
ports, iron and steel plants at Sestri Ponente, and coke plants outside
of Savona are also notable. Food processing, especially the production
of olive oil and sugar refining, is carried on, and ceramics, petroleum
products, and chemicals are economically important. In recent years tourism
has become a source of income. The leading resorts of the region are San
Remo, Alassio, Varazze, Finale, and Rapallo.
Genoa is the leading ship-outfitting
port on the Mediterranean, and the headquarters of several leading shipping
companies. It is also the Italian port that handles the lar gest
volume of freight annually, mostly in transshipment to and from northern
Italy, Switzerland, and southern Germany.
Population. In 1991 Liguria had
a population of 1,668,078. Population growth has been relatively slow in
the region: 1,086,000 in 1871 and 1,735,349 in 1961. A relatively low birth
rate has been compensated for by steady immigration, especially from the
south. The population is concentrated in the coastal cities, particularly
Genoa and its suburbs (pop. 1991, 805,000); La Spezia, developed as a naval
base between 1857 and 1869 (101,701); and Savona (68,997). La Spezia is
the foremost city of the Riviera di Levante, and Savona is the leading
city of the Riviera di Ponente. Rapallo, Chiavari, and Sestri Levante are
the leading towns of the former and Ventimiglia, Bordighera, San Remo,
Imperia, Alassio, and Albenga are the principal towns of the latter.
Transportation. An electrified
railway runs along the coast, and other lines operate inland from Savona
to Turin, Genoa to Milan, and La Spezia to Parma. The region also has an
extensive highway network.
History. Because of its many caves,
particularly around Ventimiglia, Liguria has a long record of human habitation,
going back at least to the last interglacial epoch. By the fifth century
b.c., Genoa was the marketplace of the Ligures. The Romans made their appearance
during the First Punic War, and confirmed their occupation after the Second
Punic War. Little is known of the Gothic, Byzantine, Lombard, and Frankish
occupations. Raids and outright invasions by the Saracens from Sicily and
North Africa were a constant source of danger during the early Middle Ages.
During this period, the power of
the feudal aristocracy was progressively diminished by the local bishops
and by the growth of municipal liberties. Foremost among the cities was
Genoa, which by the twelfth century had consolidated its position, expanded
its trade, and started on its course of colonial aggrandizement. In Liguria,
Genoa tended to dominate other towns, as well as feudal lords, though not
without long resistance from them. Genoa's territorial expansion eastward
brought it into direct conflict with Lucca and Florence in the early fifteenth
century, Pisa having already been eliminated as a rival a hundred years
earlier. By the sixteenth century, the process of establishing Genoese
hegemony may be said to have become fairly complete. Early in the Napoleonic
period, Liguria was recognized as a republic, but in 1805 was annexed to
the French Empire. In 1814, it was united to the Kingdom of Sardinia as
the Duchy of Genoa; and, in 1861, Liguria became part of the Kingdom of
Italy. By the treaty concluded at Paris on Feb. 10, 1947, after the end
of World War II, Italy ceded to France a narrow strip along the Ligurian
border, up to 3 miles (5 km) wide and 10 miles (16 km) long, extending
from north of Sospello to south of Briga.
Lombardy, both
a modern and a historic region of northern Italy. It is bounded on the
north by Switzerland, on the west by Piedmont and Lake Maggiore, on the
south by Emilia-Romagna and Liguria, and on the east by Veneto. It has
a total area of 9,202 square miles (23,834 sq km) and consists of the provinces
of Varese, Como, Sondrio, Milan, Bergamo, Brescia, Mantua, Cremona, and
Pavia. It is not clearly defined by natural features, and its area has
fluctuated widely during its history. Its present form was essentially
shaped in 1815.
Geography. The region, divided
into the three physical zones of the Alps, the hills, and the plain, has
a marked diversity of relief. In the Bernina Alps the maximum altitude
is 13,304 feet (4,055 meters). The pre-Alps are generally lower, with some
peaks below 8,000 feet (2,400 meters). Moraines and other glacial material
constitute the hills, often damming the numerous lakes. The largest of
these lakes are Maggiore, Lugano, Como, Iseo, and Garda, the last the largest
lake in Italy. Below the high plain are springs that feed the rivers of
the Po Plain. They make a zone of transition to the low plain that extends
to the Po, there joined by its major tributaries, the Ticino, Adda, Oglio,
and Mincio rivers.
The climate is continental, with
hot summers and cold winters on the plains. Rainfall varies largely according
to altitude, from 24 inches (610 mm) in the lowlands to over 75 inches
(1,900 mm) in the mountains.
Population. In 1991 the population
was 8,831,264, making Lombardy Italy's most populous region and the most
densely populated. The population is unevenly distributed, with heavy concentrations
in the industrialized area of the upper plains and hills. This is a reversal
of medieval times when the low plain was the most densely settled area,
with notable historic centers such as Pavia, Cremona, and Mantua. Epidemics
severely affected Lombardy's population in the 15th and 17th centuries.
Since industrialization, however, the population has grown sharply: 2,300,000
in 1815, 4,287,000 in 1901, and 7,406,152 in 1961. More than one fourth
of the population is concentrated in and around Milan.
Economic Life. Lombardy is the
foremost industrial and commercial region in Italy, and one of its richest
agricultural areas. Almost 60 percent of the Po Plain is irrigated, much
of it for meadows and rice fields. An elaborate system of canals and ditches
has developed since the Naviglio Grande was built in the 12th century.
Rice, wheat, corn, sugar beets, potatoes, and hemp are the principal crops
of the plain. In the hills there is silk-rearing and viticulture, and cattle
are raised in the Alpine pastures.
Some of Italy's largest iron and
steel producers and the greatest number of metalworking plants are located
in Lombardy. Armament production has also had a long history in the region.
Milan, Sesto, San Giovanni, Bergamo, and Brescia are the major industrial
centers. Woolen mills located at the mouths of the Alpine valleys, notably
at Monza; cotton mills, which are scattered over the high plain and in
Milan; and rayon and clothing factories in and around Milan are all economically
important. Lombardy also has many chemical industries. Rich fields of natural
gas are being exploited northwest of Cremona and there are important hydroelectric
plants in the Alps.
History. In modern times, the region
of Lombardy is an arbitrary administrative unit corresponding only roughly
to any historical entity. Originally inhabited by Umbrians, Etruscans,
and Celts, it became subject to Rome after the Second Punic War. The invasions
that followed the decay of the Empire left their mark, notably that of
the Lombards, who gave their name to the area they ruled from a.d. 568
to 774. Frankish rule continued until 888; after this came a period of
confusion from which the German emperors in the next century sought to
lift the region. This was the time of bishop-counts who prepared the way
in the cities for the communes. Unhappily, the latter, by warring among
themselves, attracted the attention of Frederick Barbarossa. At first,
some of the cities, led by Milan, helped the Emperor against the rebels.
But in time, and under the influence of the Papacy, they joined in the
Lombard League, which defeated the Emperor at Legnano in 1176 and obliged
him to recognize their autonomy in the Peace of Constance, 1183. This victory
did not prevent the rival groups and classes in the various Lombard cities
from rallying around the Guelph (papal) and Ghibelline (imperial) standards,
with disturbing effects on the tranquillity of the communes.
By the 14th century these conflicts
were being resolved by the establishment of overlordships, called the signorie,
by strong men or families, who in several cases eventually set up local
dynasties. Among these were the Visconti and Sforza in Milan, where a duchy
was created; the Bonacolsi and Gonzaga in Mantua, where first a marquisate
and later a duchy were established; the Colleoni and Suardi in Bergamo;
and the Rusconi in Como. Milan acquired wealth and territory at the expense
of her neighbors, but in turn lost Brescia and Bergamo to Venice.
The French invasions of Charles
VIII and Louis XII threw Lombardy into confusion, and between 1500 and
1535 the Duchy of Milan had seven rulers. From 1535 to 1713 it was under
Spanish domination, after losing territory to Venice, the Grisons, and
the Canton Ticino. Spanish rule was corrupt and deadening; in the Treaty
of Utrecht it was replaced by that of the Hapsburgs. The latter ruled until
1859, with two interludes. The first began with the French invasion of
1796, followed by the proclamation of the Cisalpine Republic in 1797. In
1802 this was converted into the Italian Republic, and in 1805 into the
Kingdom of Italy, with Napoleon assuming the ancient "iron crown." The
second interlude came in 1848, when, at the end of the period of
Austrian repression associated with the name of Metternich, the Hapsburg
forces were briefly driven out by the local inhabitants and the Piedmontese
army, only to return in 1849. Lombardy was finally freed in 1859 by a Franco-Piedmontese
army and accepted Victor Emmanuel II as king.
The Marches,
known in Italian as Le Marche, is a region in central Italy. In 1817 the
Marches was divided into the provinces of Ancona, Ascoli Piceno, Macerata,
Pesaro e Urbino. The capital of the region is the city of Ancona. The Marches
covers an area of 3,742 square miles (9,692 sq km).
Geography. The region is roughly
rectangular, with a nearly straight coastline of 100 miles (160 km), broken
in the middle by the promontory of Ancona and Monte Conero. The interior
boundary with Umbria follows approximately the watershed between the Adriatic
and Tyrrhenian drainage systems formed by the Umbro-Marchigiani Apennines.
The latter reach their highest points in the Monti Sibillini, behind Ascoli
Piceno, with elevations of some 8,000 feet (2,400 meters). The region is
mostly mountainous or hilly, with a rather narrow coastal plain and restricted
river valleys. The average distance between the coast and the divide is
about 40 miles (64 km), which means that the numerous rivers are short.
The important ones, from north to south, are the Foglia, Metauro, Cesano,
Misa, Esino, Musano, Potenza, Chienti, Tenna, Aso, and Tronto. Disastrous
floods sometimes occur in these streams after cloudbursts.
Climate. The climate varies according
to altitude, the higher zones having cold and snowy winters. There is also
a marked difference, due to the "elbow" on the coast, formed by Monte Conero -- to
the north the winds, and consequently the general temperature, are much
colder than to the south, and rainfall is less abundant. Annual precipitation
is also much influenced by altitude and varies from 25 to 30 inches (635-750
mm) on the coast to more than 40 inches (1,000 mm) in the mountains.
Population. The population of the
Marches was 1,427,666 in 1990. Density is greatest along the coastal hills,
where it is 500 or more persons per square mile (1,295 per sq km), but
in the interior it is under 250 (647 per sq km). Towns are small except
for Ancona (pop. 1990, 103,268), the chief industrial center of the Marches
and the one port of any size between Bari and Venice. The towns are located
in three series. A few are on the coast, notably Pesaro (pop. 1990, 78,700),
a resort. Some 6 miles (10 km) from the coast are market towns such as
Iesi (40,380), Chieti (57,535), and Fermo (17,700). Another series of towns
lies 15 to 20 miles (24-32 km) inland, including Urbino (7,900), Macerata
(34,300), and Ascoli Piceno (43,100). Emigration to Rome and other more
favored areas has been traditional.
Economy. Agriculture employs some
two thirds of the active population. The land is divided into small farms,
and mezzadria, the sharing of the proceeds by the owner and tenant farmer,
is prevalent. Natural conditions are not particularly favorable, but man
has exerted much energy in creating a pattern of intense production. Much
use is made of irrigation in the lower valleys. About one third of the
area is normally planted in cereals, chiefly wheat, with some corn grown
on the clay plateaus. Vines are important on the sandy lower hills. There
are good traditional wines, but new vineyards have tended to produce more
dessert grapes. Fruits, mulberries, hay, vegetables, and tobacco are other
important crops grown on or near the coast. The Marches have more horned
cattle than any other region of the peninsula, and the beef and draft cattle
are famous. Fishing, carried on along the coast, is the second major occupation.
San Beneditto del Tronto is the leading fishing port.
Manufacturing tends to be small
and traditional. Silk is made at Iesi and Fossombrone, paper at Fabriano,
musical instruments at Castelfidaro and Macerata, majolicas (glazed pottery)
at Pesaro and Urbino, and furniture at Ancona. There are, however, larger,
modern industries such as carbide and cyanimide works at Ascoli Piceno,
a liquid oxygen plant at Chiaravalle, superphosphates works at Porto Recanati,
and a naval shipyard at Ancona.
Two main railroads cross the region,
the Bologna-Brindisi line along the coast and the Rome-Ancona line. There
are many roads and some improved highways.
History. The early Umbrian, Picene, and Gallic inhabitants were subjugated by Rome, and the area was colonized by Roman settlers in the third century b.c. After the decline of the empire in the west, the coastal zone became part of the Exarchate of Ravenna, subject to the Byzantine Empire, and was known as the Pentapolis Maritima (Rimini, Pesaro, Fano, Senigallia, and Ancona). The Frankish monarchs, after destroying Lombard power, gave the area to the Church (752 to 774). Feudal practices, meanwhile, became entrenched, and it was long before the Church could overcome them and impose its own rule. The German emperors, beginning in the tenth century, created frontier or "march" areas: Camerino, Fermo, and Ancona. Also, communal governments were arising in some of the towns, and feudal families in the countryside. Conflicts inevitably took place between these local forces, as well as with those from the outside, the Holy Roman Empire and the Holy See never renouncing their claims. Political confusion resulted, but this did not halt the intense artistic and cultural activity or widespread prosperity. Among the more important feudal families were the Montefeltro of Urbino, the Varano of Camerino, the Malatesta of Pesaro, and the Sforza of Milan. Early in the 16th century, Cesare Borgia sought to unite the area under his rule by conquest of the smaller domains and their rulers. He prepared the way for the papacy, which established its control throughout the Marches and maintained it, except during the years of the Napoleonic upheaval, until 1860, despite revolutionary outbreaks in 1831, 1848-1849, and 1859.
Molise, a region
of south-central Italy, located on the Adriatic Sea between the regions
of Apulia, on the southeast, and Abruzzi, on the northwest. It has an area
of 1,713 square miles (4,438 sq km) and comprises the provinces of Campobasso,
along the coast, and Isernia, in the interior. The region straddles the
Apennine Mountains, and is essentially a mountain zone. Its western province
contains the upper basin of the Volturno River and drains into the Tyrrhenian
Sea. Campobasso lies in the Adriatic watershed, within the basins of the
Tronto, Biferno, and Fortore rivers. The highest elevation is in the southwest.
Winters are cold and wet, and snow often lingers on the peaks until June.
Campobasso and Isernia, the two
provincial capitals, both in the mountains, and the small port of Termoli
are the only towns. Economic activities are the growing of potatoes and
wheat and the raising of livestock. Historically, the name Molise apparently
originated in the Middle Ages. Lombards controlled the area until it was
invaded by Normans in the 11th century, and a Norman county of Molise was
created. After the first quarter of the 13th century Molise, along with
neighboring Abruzzi, was successively under Angevin, Aragonese, Spanish,
and Bourbon rule. With the establishment of modern Italy, the region of
Abruzzi e Molise was organized; in 1963 the separate region of Molise
was established. Pop. 1991, 327,893.
Piedmont (Ital.
Piemonte), the second largest region of Italy and the base from which the
House of Savoy reunited the country. The region includes the provinces
of Alessandria, Asti, Cuneo, Novara, Torino, and Vercelli; it has an area
of 9,807 square miles (25,400 sq km) and is bounded on the west by France
(after World War II Piedmont lost four small border districts to France),
on the north by Switzerland and the Val d'Aosta (a semi-autonomous area
that was formerly part of the old Piedmontese province of Aosta), on the
east by Lombardy, and on the south by Liguria. The southern boundary approximates
the divide formed by the Maritime Alps and the Ligurian Apennines.
Geography. Piedmont is the most
alpine of the Italian regions. Half of its area lies within a great arc
of mountains formed by the Graian, Cottian, and Pennine Alps to the west
and north and the Maritime Alps to the south. These mountains, notably
Monte Bianco (Mont Blanc) and Monte Rosa rise to over 15,000 feet (4,600
meters). They are drained by the upper Po and its tributaries, chief of
which are the Tanaro, Dora Riparia, Dora Baltea, and the Ticino. The Po
valley widens below Turin in a sweep of rich agricultural lands around
the Monferrato hills, which are also noted for their vineyards. There is
a marked contrast between the cold continental climate of the mountains
and the mild conditions of the plain where rainfall is distributed
evenly throughout the year.
Population. The population of Piedmont
has increased rapidly in the last century. Recent growth has been mainly
the result of an influx into Turin and other cities from outside the region.
There has also been considerable rural emigration, however, from the mountains
into France and Switzerland. The population distribution is very uneven
with the highest rural densities on the irrigated lowlands. Urban concentration
is around Turin and the market towns between Ivrea and Biella. Around Lake
Maggiore are tourist resorts. Regional centers are Novara, Vercelli, Alessandria,
and Cuneo. Pop. 1991, 4,290,412.
Economic Life. About two-thirds
of Piedmont's mountain area has poor resources with only lumber and livestock
economies. Rural depopulation is severe. In the lower alpine valleys agriculture
is intensive and hydroelectric power promotes local industries. Cereal
crops predominate on the plain, with specialized rice growing in the Vercelli
area, and rotation grass elsewhere supporting an important livestock industry.
Winemaking, particularly vermouth, is carried on in the Monferrato hills.
Woolen textiles, concentrated chiefly
in the Biella district, have traditional economic importance, and Piedmont
still produces about half the national output. Cotton mills around Turin
and artificial silk plants at Verrès and Chatillon are also notable.
Iron ore in the Aosta valley first promoted a metallurgical industry, but
today the major industry is engineering, centered at Turin. F.I.A.T., the
chief plant, is one of Europe's largest industrial enterprises with, in
addition to automobiles, a wide range of manufacturing, shipping, and oil
interests. Food products are a third area of activity. There are also chemical,
wood, nonmetallic minerals, paper, rubber, and leather manufactures. Nearly
a third of the population is engaged in industry and trade.
Transportation. Piedmont is well
supplied with railways and highways, including the autostrada between Turin,
Milan, and Brescia. The Fréjus Tunnel carries a main railway line
to France, and the Simlon Tunnel connects Italy with Switzerland. In 1962
a tunnel was completed under Mt. Blanc, linking Courmayeur, Italy, with
Chamonix, France. Most of Piedmont's seaborn traffic passes through Savona
and Genoa.
History. The Piedmont region was
inhabited by Ligurians, Gauls, and others in pre-Roman times. It was traversed
by the invading Carthaginian forces of Hannibal in the Second Punic War,
at the conclusion of which Rome made it part of Gallia Transpadana. When
the empire disintegrated, northwest Italy was invaded by Germanic peoples,
principally the Lombards and Franks. After the disruption of the Carolingian
Empire in 888, Piedmont fell under three great feudal houses: Ivrea, Turin,
and Monferrato. Of these, Turin succeeded in imposing its rule on the others.
By 1045 the March of Turin included considerable tracts in the upper Po
Valley and an outlet to the sea at Albenga. In that year the last Marquis
of Turin's daughter married the son of Count Umberto Biancamano, lord of
extensive lands in the Val d'Aosta and Savoy. From then until 1946 his
house furnished an uninterrupted line of 18 counts, 14 dukes, and 10 kings.
Beginning in the 11th century,
the power of the counts was diminished by the rise of communes in a number
of Piedmontese cities. Upon the decline of the latter, some of the feudal
families reasserted themselves, while the House of Savoy divided into three
territorial branches, not reunited until 1418. A confused period followed
in which the rulers who had become dukes failed to take advantage of dynastic
opportunities in Lombardy, Monferrato, and Saluzzo. These opportunities
were seized instead by France and Spain. In the 16th century, however,
Emmanuel Philibert, military ally of Charles V and Philip II, definitely
oriented his house away from Savoy and toward Piedmont. He set up his capital
in Turin. His successor, Charles Emmanuel I (1580-1630), acquired Saluzzo
in 1601. He sought unsuccessfully to conquer Monferrato, not annexed until
1714.
Victor Amadeus (1675-1730) was
accorded the title of king in 1713, first of Sicily, later of Sardinia.
His son, Charles Emmanuel III (1730-1773), utilized his strong strategic
position among the Great Powers to push his frontiers to the Ticino and
Trebbia rivers in the east, thus completing the unification of Piedmont.
He also abolished many of the old feudal rights and duties, a policy which
his reactionary son Victor Amadeus III (1773-1796) was unable entirely
to reverse. French armies invaded the country in 1796 and for 16 years
Piedmont was under French hegemony, some of the time as an integral part
of the Napoleonic empire.
The House of Savoy, which had sought
refuge in Sardinia, returned to Turin in 1814 and tried to restore pre-revolutionary
conditions. This inevitably created a reaction which led to a revolt in
1821, resulting in the abdication of Victor Emmanuel I. His successor,
Charles Felix, put down the revolt with Austrian help. In 1831 the elder
branch of the House of Savoy became extinct and Charles Albert of Savoy-Carignan
became king. Of less reactionary inclinations, he permitted concessions
to liberalism, culminating in the Statuto of March 1848. He also declared
war on Austria, but on his defeat at Novara in 1849 he abdicated. It fell
to his successor, Victor Emmanuel II, and his prime minister Cavour to
build a united Italy on the basis of the Piedmontese dynasty, army, and
administrative system.
Sardinia (It.
Sardegna), the second largest island of the Mediterranean, off the west
coast of the Italian peninsula immediately south of Corsica (see Map
1). Sardinia, together with the islands off
its shores, forms a region of Italy with an area of 9,301 square miles
(24,089 sq km), divided into the provinces of Cagliari, Nuoro, and Sassari.
The city of Cagliari is the capital. The island is 170 miles (270 km) long
from Point Falcone, in the north, to Cape Teulada, in the south; and its
average width is about 60 miles (95 km). The total length of the coastline
is nearly 830 miles (1,300 km). However, the island is deficient in good
harbors, the northeast coast being the exception.
Geography. Sardinia is mainly mountainous
but without distinct ranges. The terrain is rugged, except in the southern
Campidano region, the one important lowland. Granite predominates in the
eastern half, rising in a compact mass of elevated plateaus to the mountains
of the Gennargentu region, where the summit of Punta La Marmora (6,017
feet; 1,834 meters) marks the highest point on Sardinia. In the northeast
are the granite plateaus of Gallura, and in the southeast, the Sarrabus
highlands. The Campidano lowland extends across the island diagonally,
linking the Gulf of Cagliari in the south with the Gulf of Oristano on
the west coast. It consists in fact of two campidani: the younger plain,
elevated above the sea only in recent geologic time and still being drained
of surface waters in the marshy lower Tirso valley; and the higher rolling
relief, composed of older sediments and eroded into hills and valleys.
In the southwest, the mountains of the Iglesiente region rise to over 4,000
feet (1,200 meters). In the northwest are plateaus of volcanic deposits,
together with tilted blocks of limestone.
There are over 26,000 springs on
the island, many of which originate in cavernous limestone or are hot springs,
typical of volcanic areas. In a program of water control, some 200
lakes have been formed since 1907, with major reservoirs constructed on
the Tirso River and its tributaries, the Coghinas, Flumendosa, Posada,
Palmas, Cixerri, and Cuga rivers. Dams are also being constructed on the
Cedrino, Temo, Vignola, Araxisi, and Flumineddu rivers. The Mannu River
is another principal stream of the island. There is a major power and irrigation
project on the Flumendosa River.
Climate. The climate of Sardinia
is typically Mediterranean. There is a long period of summer drought followed
by marked rainfall between December and February. As over two-thirds of
the island is hilly, the rainfall is relatively heavy for a Mediterranean
environment, ranging from 24 inches (610 mm) on the lowlands to more than
40 inches (1,000 mm) in the mountainous regions.
Population. The population of Sardinia
according to the 1991 census was 1,637,705. The average density of about
176 per square mile (68 per sq km) is one of the lowest in Italy, and in
some areas, such as the northeastern province of Nuoro, the density is
only about 97 per square mile (38 per sq km). The great majority of the
people live in compact villages and small towns. It is only in the districts
of Nurra, Gallura, Sulcis, and Sarrabus that colonization movements of
the 16th and later centuries encouraged isolated farms to develop. Owing
to threats of piracy and malaria near the coast, the villages of Sardinia
became concentrated in the interior, often near the sites of prehistoric
towerlike structures, called nuraghi, of which some 6,500 ruins have been
identified. There are only two cities of any size: Cagliari (pop. 1991,
211,719) and Sassari (120,011). Cagliari is the seat of the autonomous
regional government of Sardinia and the chief port. It has chemical works
associated with the nearby salt industry, paper and flour mills, food factories,
and tanneries. Sassari is primarily an agricultural market and has food-processing
activities. Smaller centers of note are La Maddalena, a naval base; Alghero,
a popular resort; and Iglesias and Carbonia, the chief mining centers.
Economic Life. Agriculture, although
the leading occupation of Sardinia, claims a much smaller proportion of
the land than in any of the other regions of peninsular Italy. Spontaneous
vegetation covers 67 percent of Sardinia; most of it is in permanent pasture
while only 5 percent is woodland and 10 percent is in Mediterranean brush,
or macchia. At least half of the total agricultural production is from
livestock products, and there are almost three million sheep and goats
on the island. Only about one third of the productive land is cultivated.
Hard wheat is the chief grain, and potatoes, vines, olives, citrus fruits,
almonds, and vegetables are also important. Many of the crops, however,
have yields below those of the national average. Sardinia leads all Italy
in the production of cork oak. The processing of meat, milk, cheese and
a coarse fleece called orbace, used to stuff mattresses, are important.
Wine, often with a high alcoholic content, is also produced.
Mineral production is Sardinia's
main industry and is concentrated in the Iglesiente mountains of the southwest.
Mining dates from prehistory, perhaps from the time of the nuraghi builders
and certainly from the period of Phoenician and Roman domination. Montefioni
and Montevecchio are famous mines of the Renaissance and later. The modern
mining of lead, zinc, antimony, manganese, and iron ores (in that order
of importance) began after 1887. Today, lead and zinc form the bulk of
the output and both have good future reserves. The Sulcis coalfield is
the third mineral producer but has brown coal of low fuel value. Recent
surveys indicate considerable iron ore reserves in the Nurra, and production
there is being expanded. Salt pans at Cagliari and Carloforte account for
almost half of the national production.
The Sardinians traditionally have
not been interested in fishing. Tuna are caught in considerable quantities,
especially off the west coast, but this is done primarily by the Sicilians
and Genoese. The chief center is Carloforte.
The principal railway line runs
from Olbia through Oristano to Cagliari; and branch lines connect with
Sassari, Portotorres, Iglesias, and other points on the island. There are
also several hundred miles of narrow-gauge lines and private mineral lines.
The highway system has been improved in recent years. There are few seaports.
The three chief commercial ports are Cagliari, Terranova Pausania, and
Porto Torres. Cagliari's artificial harbor handles most of the lead, zinc,
and salt shipping. Terranova handles most of the mail and passenger traffic
to the mainland port of Civitavecchia. Porto Torres is the outlet for Sassari
and the Nurra iron mines and has steamship connections with Genoa. There
are four airfields, two near Cagliari and two in the northwest near Sassari
and Alghero.
Sardinia has long been one of the
most underdeveloped areas of Italy but now appears to have brighter prospects.
After World War II the entire island was sprayed with DDT, and malaria,
which had long plagued the island, was eradicated in 1952. Major reclamation
works, begun in the Fascist era, have been completed and land reform agencies
have made a major impact since the 1950's with the creation of new settlements
and improved communications. Tourism is beginning to have a considerable
influence on the economy.
History. Archaeologists are still
seeking the answers to some of the riddles posed by the island's prehistory,
in particular by the nuraghi, the prehistoric towerlike structures that
dot the landscape. While the origin and nature of the culture that built
them are uncertain, it had expansive energies, for objects of early Sardinian
manufacture have been found in Corsica and Sicily. The historical period
begins in the first millennium b.c. with the arrival of the Phoenicians,
who established several colonies. Later the Carthaginians took over and
extended these colonies. The Romans followed between the First and Second
Punic Wars and held Sardinia until it was overrun by the Vandals in the
middle of the fifth century of the Christian Era. Belisarius put an end
to Vandal power in 534 and established Byzantine rule, which proved vexatious
and largely ineffec tive. Further Germanic attempts at invasion were
repelled, but the force of Arab attacks was not so easily resisted.
Sardinia was virtually independent
from the eighth to the twelfth centuries, being divided into four regions
or giudicati: Cagliari, Torres, Arborea, and Gallura. But the island was
not allowed to develop in peace, for it became an object of Pisan and Genoese
imperialism. At first Pisa established her hegemony in the south and east,
Genoa in the north and west. Eventually Genoa gained complete control,
only to be attacked in 1323 by the forces of Aragon, who invaded Sardinia
with the encouragement of the Pope, one of the claimants to the island.
However, Aragonese rule was not imposed upon the local population until
after many years of warfare, and the island was not thoroughly subjugated
until 1478. The joint rule of Ferdinand and Isabella began the following
year, and until 1700 Sardinia languished under Spanish despotism and negligence.
During the War of the Spanish Succession, Archduke Charles of Austria conquered
the island, gaining possession by the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. Four years
later Spain reconquered Sardinia, but in the Treaty of London, 1718, it
was turned over to Victor Amadeus II of Savoy, who took possession in 1720,
assuming the title King of Sardinia, which was borne by his successors
until the formation of the Kingdom of Italy.
Under the House of Savoy the island
began its long and slow regeneration, economically and socially. A French
naval attack in 1793 failed, and in 1798 Charles Emmanuel IV took refuge
in Cagliari after having been driven out of Turin. During the reign of
Charles Albert (1831-1849), many of the remaining feudal privileges and
servitudes were abolished, and in 1847 Sardinia was united with the continental
domains of the House of Savoy, thus permitting it to participate in the
benefits of the Constitution (Statuto) of 1848.
Sicily, an Italian
island in the Mediterranean off the tip of the Italian peninsula. At the
Strait of Messina, Sicily is only 2 miles (3 km) from Calabria, on the
Italian mainland, and on the southwest it is about 90 miles (140 km) from
Cape Bon in Tunisia on the North African coast. It has a roughly triangular
shape, marked at its corners by the following headlands: Cape Boeo or Lilibeo
at the western corner, Faro Point at the northeastern corner, and Cape
Passero at the southeastern corner. The island, which has an area of 9,831
square miles (25,462 sq km), is the largest in the Mediterranean Sea.
Sicily is one of the 19 regions
into which Italy is divided for purposes of administration. The capital
of this region is Palermo, and within its jurisdiction are several adjacent
islands and archipelagoes: the Egadi Islands (west), Ustica and the Lipari
Islands (north), the Pelagian Islands (south), and Pantellaria (southwest).
The region of Sicily, now the largest of Italy, has a total area of 9,926
square miles (25,708 sq km). The provinces of Sicily are Messina, Catania,
Syracuse (Siracusa), Ragusa, Agrigento, Caltanissetta, Enna, Palermo, and
Trapani.
PHYSICAL FEATURES
Topography. In general the topography
of Sicily is hilly or mountainous. The average elevation is about 1,450
feet (440 meters), and about two thirds of the land is over 1,000 feet
(300 meters) above sea level. The highest peak is the isolated, still active
volcano of Etna, or Mongibello, 10,902 feet (3,323 meters), on the east
coast. The main chain of mountains runs from Faro Point westward across
two thirds of the island, parallel with the north coast. These mountains
consist of three principal ranges: from east to west, the Peloritani, the
Nebrodi or Caronie, and the Madonie. These mountains rarely exceed 5,000
feet (1,500 meters). A southern spur of this principal massif is formed
by the Monti Erei, in the middle of the island. In the southeast are the
Monti Iblei, attaining altitudes over 3,000 feet (900 meters). Elsewhere
the terrain is hilly, with only a few plains. Along the Tyrrhenian Sea,
coastal plains are either nonexistent or very narrow, except in a few favored
places, such as around Palermo. The east coast north of Catania is very
steep, but south of that city lies the Plain of Catania. This is formed
by the alluvium of several streams; some of it is quite swampy, and on
its southern side is Lake Lentini. Along the south coast, narrow
plains are not infrequent, and at the western end of the island is the
largest lowland of all -- between Menfi and Trapani.
Climate. The climate is generally
mild, owing to maritime influences. Summers are usually no hotter than
in central Italy or the Po Valley, though winters are more moderate. Snow
is common only at the higher elevations. A peculiarity of the Sicilian
climate is the sirocco, a hot, dry, often dust-laden wind that occasionally
blows from Africa, with depressing and enervating effect on human beings.
Rainfall tends to be irregular and deficient, especially along the coasts,
where most of the people live. Practically all of the rain comes in the
fall and winter, and the volume varies widely from year to year.
POPULATION
In 1991 the population of Sicily
was 4,961,383, making it the fourth most populated region of Italy and
one of the most densely populated, with 505 persons per square mile (193
per sq km). In 1871 the population was 2,584,000, and it had increased
to 3,529,799 by 1901. Between 1901 and 1921, however, the population was
relatively stationary because of heavy emigration overseas. The maximum
outflow was attained in 1966, with 127,000 emigrants.
The population is distributed very
irregularly, with areas of the highest density immediately adjacent to
others of very low density. The high densities are not always around cities;
several are in essentially rural districts, others in mining areas. As
in southern Italy, the people tend to congregate in urban centers. Only
about 10 percent live in scattered dwellings. There are three cities with
populations in excess of 270,000: Palermo, Catania, and Messina.
Ethnically the people of Sicily
represent a mixture of many elements -- Sicilian, Greek, Carthaginian,
Roman, Arab, Berber, Norman, Spanish, and others. During the period of
Muslim rule, one third of the population is believed to have been of North
African origin. In general they tend to be short, stocky, and of a swarthy
complexion, with dark hair and eyes. One aim of the Sicilian land-reform
program is to reduce the high rate of illiteracy from its current level
of between a fourth and a third of the population.
ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
Agriculture. Despite the urban
character of Sicily's population, the island's economy is predominantly
agricultural. In ancient times Sicily grew both wheat and grapes. The latter
were little cultivated under Arab rule; instead, rice, cotton, sugarcane,
saffron, citrus fruits, and other exotic plants were introduced from Africa
and the Levant. The Arabs also started the use of irrigation and the intensive
cultivation of gardens. Approximately one half of the working population
of the island is engaged in agriculture. Sicily has a higher percentage
of land in sown crops and wheat than any other region in Italy, but is
next to the lowest in productivity per acre, because of climatic conditions
and backward farming methods. Normally Sicily produces one third of Italy's
rye, 10 percent of her wheat, and one eighth of her olive oil. Only Apulia
produces more olive oil. Grapes are grown in quantity, and one twelfth
of Italy's wine comes from Sicily, which is noted for strong wines, such
as the Marsala, Corso, and Etna.
It is in citrus fruits, particularly
lemons and oranges, that Sicily ranks first in Italy. Flax is widely cultivated,
and the growing of cotton has become important in recent years. Sheep,
goats, and mules are raised in small numbers.
Other Industries. About one third
of the Sicilian labor force is employed in nonagricultural industries,
including mining and fishing.
The rich oil fields discovered
near Gela and Ragusa in the 1950's provide the island's chief mineral resource.
Natural gas is found near Catania. The Sicilian sulfur mines were formerly
very profitable, but high production costs and foreign competition have
depressed the industry. Other mineral resources include asphalt, potash,
and salt.
The most important manufacturing
industries are oil refining and production of petrochemicals. Shipbuilding
and the manufacture of cement and other building materials, fertilizers,
and pharmaceuticals are also significant. Handicraft articles in stone,
wood, and textiles are sold to the many tourists who come to Sicily.
The waters around Sicily teem with
fish, especially tunny, and about one fourth of Italy's fishing boats sail
from Sicilian ports.
Transportation. The island is fairly
well provided with railway and highway networks, a notable exception being
the northern mountain chain. Through-railway traffic with continental Italy
is provided by train ferries across the Strait of Messina. The chief ports,
in order of their importance, are Palermo, Catania, Messina, and Syracuse.
Smaller ports are Marsala and Trapani.
HISTORY
Relatively little is known about
the Sicani and the Siculi, who inhabited the island in the Neolithic Age.
Colonists from Greece came in large numbers during the eighth and seventh
centuries b.c., founding Syracuse, Catania, Messina, Gela, and other cities.
These in time came under the hegemony of Syracuse, which led them victoriously
against the native Siculi and the invading Carthaginians. The jealousy
of Athens brought on a conflict in which the Athenians suffered defeat.
The high point of Greek civilization in Sicily came under Dionysius I (c.
430-367 b.c.), Tyrant of Syracuse. Thereafter it declined, despite momentary
revivals under Timoleon, Agathocles, and Pyrrhus, and at last the island
was unable to fend off invasion by Carthage.
In 264 b.c. Roman troops entered
Sicily, and at the end of the ensuing First Punic War (264-241 b.c.) the
island, except Syracuse, became Rome's first province. In the Second Punic
War, Syracuse, allied with Carthage, was taken by the consul Marcellus,
and all of Sicily became Roman. Under Roman rule the island became an important
granary for the metropolis. Great estates were worked by slaves, and in
general Sicily was exploited and impoverished.
The fall of the Roman Empire exposed
Sicily to the Vandals, Ostrogroths, and Byzantines. The last maintained
their rule for over three centuries after Belisarius' conquest in 535;
but in 826 the Arabs began to invade the island and by 901 had overcome
the last resistance. Under the two successive dynasties -- the Aghlabites
and the Fatimites -- Sicily bade fair to become Arabized and Muslimized.
Under the Fatimites the island was ruled by an emir at Palermo and enjoyed
prosperity and a cultural revival.
However, in time, Arab rule was
weakened by internal decay and conflict, thus opening the way for the energetic
Count Roger d'Hauteville, who in 1060 began the Norman occupation of Sicily,
finally completed in 1090. Under Roger II (r. 1130-1154) Palermo was the
capital of a kingdom that included not only southern Italy but parts of
Greece, and enjoyed a reputation as a great intellectual center where the
Christian and Islamic cultures were blended. Under Frederick II (r. 1211-1250)
Palermo reached even greater heights of splendor and artistic renown.
When Conradin, last of Frederick's
three Hohenstaufen successors, had been executed in Naples in 1268, Sicily
fell under the sway of Charles of Anjou. French rule proved most oppressive
and was ended in the bloody uprising that began with the "Sicilian Vespers"
in 1282. The Sicilian parliament called in the Aragonese, related by marriage
to the Hohenstaufen, but found most of the monarchs in this line to be
unsatisfactory. In the 14th century Sicily came under Spanish rule, Peter
IV of the Spanish house of Aragon acquiring the island in 1377. Spanish
rule was inefficient, cruel and corrupt, and only in the 19th century was
the island finally freed from Spain.
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies. Although
Sicily and Naples had been temporarily united under the Normans in the
12th century, the formal establishment of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies,
as the united kingdom of Naples and Sicily was known, was not achieved
until 1442 after the conquest of Naples by Alfonso of Aragon. The kingdom
was divided shortly thereafter, but the two states were reunited in 1504
under Ferdinand of Aragon, king of Spain.
The 18th century saw many changes
in the position of Sicily; by the Peace of Utrecht (1713-1714) it was ceded
to Savoy; seven years later it became the property of the Austrian Hapsburgs,
who retained it until 1738 when the Spanish Bourbons took possession. For
the remainder of the 18th century Spain ruled over the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies. The alliance of the Spanish Bourbons with the coalition against
Napoleon led to defeat and the assumption of the crown by Joseph Bonaparte.
The defeat of the Napoleonic forces led to the return of the Spanish Bourbons.
After the restoration of Ferdinand
I, third son of Charles III of Spain, in 1815, the constitution which had
been granted in 1812 was revoked and old abuses were revived despite the
vote of the Sicilian parliament in 1812 abolishing feudalism. This reaction
bred revolutionary movements, which broke out in violence during 1820,
1821, and 1848. In the last year a popular revolt drove the Bourbon troops
out of Palermo and established a short-lived provisional government which
unsuccessfully offered the Sicilian throne to a Savoyard prince. This revolt
was fiercely suppressed in 1849. Thus in 1860 the Sicilians were ready
to welcome Garibaldi and his "Redshirts." He landed at Marsala on May 11,
occupied Palermo by June 6, and on July 27 took Messina. A plebiscite on
October 21 gave 430,000 votes for annexation to the Kingdom of Sardinia
and thus to Italy.
Sicily in Recent Years. In World
War II Sicilian ports and airfields were much used by the Axis powers to
support their armies in North Africa and to close the central Mediterranean
to Allied shipping. The invasion of Sicily by Anglo-American forces, prepared
for by air and naval bombardments, began on July 10, 1943, at several points
on the south and east coasts. Palermo was taken on July 23, Catania was
abandoned by the Germans on August 5 and Messina was captured on August
17. The successful invasion of Sicily brought about the fall of Mussolini
and the creation of the Badoglio min istry, which made peace with
the Allies on Sept. 8, 1943.
Even before the end of World War
II latent separatist tendencies developed in Sicily and in time obliged
the government at Rome to make wide concessions, including the revival
of the insular parliament. All of the elections for this body in the postwar
years have shown widespread Leftist tendencies.
Trentino-Alto
Adige, formerly Venezia Tridentina, the northernmost region of Italy, comprising
the provinces of Trento (Trentino) and Bolzano (Südtirol, formerly
Alto Adige), with an area of 5,256 square miles (13,613 sq km). It is bounded
on the north and northeast by Austria, on the east and south by the region
of Veneto, and on the west by the region of Lombardy and Switzerland. The
former Alto Adige was officially renamed Südtirol (South Tirol) in
1969 as a concession to its German-speaking inhabitants.
Geography. The region lies almost
wholly within the Alpine and pre-Alpine area of the Adige River watershed.
It also comprises the upper basins of the Chiese and Sarca rivers, the
latter draining into Lake Garda. Roughly in the form of a triangle, Trentino-Alto
Adige is confined on the north by the crest of the Alps, on the east by
the Dolomites, and on the west by the massifs of Ortles and Adamello. Within
this triangular frame of mountains is the Bolzano Plateau, which has an
average elevation of 4,300 to 5,600 feet (1,300-1,700 meters).
The High Tirol, about 50 miles
(80 km) long and 20 miles (32 km) wide, is Italy's most mountainous area.
It includes the Venoste, Brenner, and Aurine Alps, with several peaks exceeding
12,000 feet (3,700 meters). There are three important passes: Resia, Monte
Giovo, and Brenner.
The Dolomites to the east are jagged
mountains with elevations of about 9,000 feet (2,700 meters). In the granitic
ranges of the Adamello and, especially, the Ortles mountains there are
numerous glaciers.
The Adige Valley is the region's
only extensive lowland. Its upper part, through which the Adige River flows
eastward from its source near the northwest corner of the Resia Pass to
Merano, is called the Val Venosta. Near Bolzano the Adige picks up the
waters of the Iscaro and its tributary, the Rienza, which flows through
the Val Pusteria and meets the Iscaro at Fortezza (Franzensfeste). Below
Bolzano it is flanked by the valleys of the Noce and Avisio rivers. The
northern tip of Lake Garda and the headwaters of the Mincio basin (Sarca
River) lie in the southwest.
The climate varies widely, depending
on altitude and location. Cold winds seep through the Brenner Pass and
the eastern valleys in winter, but some of the valleys, particularly those
facing south, are more sheltered and have warm springs and autumns and
hot summers. The annual rainfall ranges from under 30 inches (750 mm) in
the Val Venosta to between 50 and 60 inches (1,300-1,500 mm) in the mountains.
Summer droughts are an agricultural risk, and frost is a recurrent feature
of the basins in winter.
Population. The population of the
region was 886,914 in 1991. The Adige Valley is one of the most densely
populated in the Alps, with over 169 people per square mile (65 per sq
km) and numerous small towns. The principal urban centers lie along the
transalpine routes up the Adige and over the Resia and Brenner passes.
They are Trento, the regional capital; Bolzano (Bozen), the chief
industrial center; and Merano (Meran), the leading resort. The region is
predominantly Italian-speaking, but more than three quarters of the people
in the Südtirol are German-speaking.
Economic Activity. The economy
of the region is linked with its mountainous character. More than half
of the productive area is under woodland, chiefly red firs and other conifers,
and about 10,000 people are employed by the region's widely scattered timber
industries. The raising of cattle is almost equally important economically.
The cultivated area is very small, and fruits, grapes, potatoes, and cereals
are the principal crops. Irrigation has been developed in the basins and
is used primarily for the growing of pears and apples.
The region has few minerals, with
only minor granite quarries and some marble workings. However, waterpower
resources are abundant, and there are numerous hydroelectric plants on
the upper Adige and Isarco rivers. Metallurgical and chemical industries
have been established at Bolzano. One of the largest of these concerns
produces about a third of Italy's aluminum supply. Chemical fertilizers
are also a major industrial product. Wooden handicrafts and textiles are
more traditional activities.
Tourism is also an important source
of the regional income. The great influx of tourists into the southern
Tirol began with the construction of railroads in the late 19th and early
20th centuries. There are a number of mountain roads famous for their beauty,
and the region is served by the rail line leading from Italy, via the Brenner
Pass, to Austria.
Tuscany (It.
Toscana), a region in north-central Italy, bounded on the north by Emilia-Romagna,
on the east by the Marches and Umbria, on the south by Latium and the Tyrrhenian
Sea, and on the west by the Ligurian Sea and Liguria. The Apennine Mountains
form most of the northern boundary of the region, except northeast
of Florence, where the region includes a strip on the northern side of
the divide. Tuscany has an area of 8,877 square miles (22,992 sq km) and
embraces the provinces of Arezzo, Firenze (Florence), Grosseto, Livorno
(Leghorn), Lucca, Massa e Carrara, Pisa, Pistoia, and Siena.
Geography. More than half of Tuscany
is hilly, and about one third is mountainous. The northern Apennines in
the northeast are steeper there than on the Emilian flank. The Apuanian
Alps, with elevations of over 6,000 feet, rise abruptly in the northwest,
close to the coast. In the southwest is the volcanic cone of Monte Amiata
(5,702 feet; 1,738 meters), rising above the mineral-rich plateau. The
remainder of Tuscany is rolling hilly country with soils of clay and sand.
Prehistoric lakes, drained chiefly by the Arno, now form a series of enclosed
plains. The most notable of these are the Garfagnana, Florence, Mugello,
Casentino, the upper Val d'Arno, and the Chiana, which link up with an
Umbrian series of the upper Tiber. Some of Tuscany's richest farmland is
in this area. The coastal areas of the lower Arno and the Maremma are the
region's largest lowlands. Malaria, large estate holdings, and poor drainage
made the 850-square-mile (2,200-sq-km) Maremma one of Tuscany's poorest
districts until drainage programs were begun in the 19th century and land
reforms were instituted in the 1950's. The chief rivers of Tuscany are
the Arno and its tributaries, the Era, Elsa, Bisenzio, and Sieve, and the
Serchio.
Population. The population of Tuscany
was 3,510,114 in 1991. The density of population, more than 395 persons
per square mile (153 per sq km), varies greatly within the region. The
heaviest population is in the lower Arno Valley from Florence to the sea,
plus the Tyrrhenian coast from Carrara to Cecina. Regions of heavy density
are also found around Siena and in the Chianti district. Southern Tuscany
has a low population density -- about one third of the people live
in scattered dwellings; the rest in urban centers.
The chief city and regional capital
is Florence (pop. 1991), 402,316, followed by Leghorn (171,265), Pisa (101,500),
and Siena (57,745). Prato, Pistoia, Lucca, Piombino, and Grosseto are also
important centers. There are several spas, and popular resorts have grown
up along the coast.
Economic Resources. Although much
of the land is under cereal crops, principally wheat, tree crops are equally
important. The Chianti vineyards produce, in a very limited area, over
a quarter of the total Tuscan wine production. Olives are important particularly
around Lucca and Pisa, and chestnuts and fruits are grown on a lesser scale.
Sheep and goats are numerous.
The woolen industry of Prato is
a remnant of the cloth trade of the Middle Ages. There are modern cotton
mills at Florence, Leghorn, and Pisa. Mining and quarrying are traditional
and still important. Iron pyrite for the preparation of sulfuric acid and
superphosphates is processed in west Tuscany. Mercury is mined at Monte
Amiata, salt at Volterra, and borax in the Cecina Basin. Building materials,
principally Carrara marble, are produced in the Apuanian Alps.
Major industries of Tuscany are
the iron and steel works at Piombino, the shipyards of Leghorn, and the
motorcycle factories at Pontedera. Tourism is also important.
Transportation. The region is well
served by numerous railroads that include main lines between northern and
southern Italy. Express highways link Florence with Bologna and Milan,
with Rome and Naples, and with the seacoast. Leghorn, once a free port,
is one of Italy's leading seaports as well as a naval base and an important
commercial center.
History. In pre-Roman times Tuscany
was inhabited by Etruscans and, in the northwest, Ligurians. The Etruscans
were subjected to Rome in the mid-fourth century b.c., and the name Tuscia
came to be applied to the region. After the decay of the Roman Empire,
Tuscany was invaded by Goths, Byzantines, Lombards, and Franks. The counts
of Lucca dominated Tuscany after a.d. 774, the counts of Canossa from about
1027. When Matilda of Tuscany died in 1115, she left her lands to the Holy
See. A long struggle between the popes and the emperors ensued, enabling
the prosperous cities to increase their power and independence.
Among the cities, Lucca and Pisa,
often at swords' points, led during the 11th and 12th centuries. Pisa was
victorious in the Arno Valley, but was defeated by Genoa in the sea battle
of Meloria in 1284. In the early 13th century Lucca tried to dominate Tuscany
under Uguccione della Faggiuola and Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli.
But soon Florence, which dominated Pistoia and Arezzo, resumed its forward
march. Pisa lost its independence in 1406 and Siena in 1555. This Florentine
expansion was led by the Medici family, who in effect ruled the city from
the early 15th century to the mid-18th century, except in 1494-1512 and
1527-1530. The Medici were patrons of art and literature and contributed
greatly to the development of Florence as a political and cultural center.
In 1569 Cosimo I received the title of grand duke of Tuscany. The Medici
rulers became extinct with the death of Gian Gastone in 1737.
Tuscany passed to Francis I, husband
of Maria Theresa, who also became Holy Roman Emperor in 1745. His son Leopold
I (r. 1765-1790), the ablest grand duke of the Hapsburg line, promoted
enlightened legislation and economic development. When he became Holy Roman
Emperor in 1790, Leopold was succeeded in Tuscany by his son Ferdinand
III. The armies of the French Revolution occupied Tuscany in 1799 and again
in 1800. In 1801 the grand duchy was transformed into a Kingdom of Etruria
under French control. In 1808 Tuscany was annexed by France. Ferdinand
III was restored in 1814, after Napoleon's downfall. In 1824 he was succeeded
by his son Leopold II, who granted a constitution in 1848 in hopes of forestalling
revolution. But a republic was proclaimed in February 1849 and Leopold
fled. He was restored by Austrian troops in July and withdrew the constitution
in 1852. He was expelled again in 1859 during the Risorgimento. In 1860
Tuscany was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia, which became the Kingdom
of Italy in 1861.
Umbria, a region
in central Italy, bounded by Tuscany on the northwest, the Marches on the
northeast, and Latium on the southeast and southwest. With an area of 3,265
square miles (8,456 sq km), it consists of the provinces of Perugia and
Terni.
Umbria has three topographical
sections: the interior basins and valleys, drained by the upper and middle
Tiber River and its tributaries; east of these, the central Apennines,
mostly forested; and in the west, rolling hills overlooking Lake Trasimeno,
the largest lake in peninsular Italy.
The central basin is the most cultivated
and settled. Terni (pop. 1991, 93,400) and the regional capital, Perugia
(109,500), are the largest cities. Population began to decline in the 1960's,
and in 1991 it was 804,054. Umbria is characterized by peasant farming
on small holdings; cereals are the main crop, followed by olives and vines,
the latter producing the respected wines of Orvieto and Perugia.
Industrial development, formerly
modest, was promoted by the exploitation of a readily accessible supply
of electricity based on water power, especially from the Nera and Velino
rivers in the Terni district. Large plants, many established in the 1960's,
produce iron, steel, and chemicals, and there are engineering works and
food-processing establishments. Other industries are small and scattered,
and are based on a tradition of local crafts, such as ceramics and woodcarving.
The number of historic places and
artistic monuments in Umbria and the region's scenic beauty have helped
to promote tourism, now a major source of income. Among the towns of historic
interest are Foligno, Spoleto, Orvieto, Assisi, Todi, Città di Castello,
and Gubbio.
Several roads and highways traverse
the region. The main rail lines from Rome to Florence and Ancona pass through
Umbria, and serve Orvieto, Terni, Spoleto, and Foligno.
History. Occupied in ancient times
by the Umbri, and then by the Etruscans, Umbria came under Roman sway before
the Second Punic War. After the fall of the Roman Empire, possession of
the region was contested by Goths and Byzantine Greeks. The Lombard invasion
in the sixth century a.d. led to the creation of the Duchy of Spoleto,
with which the political destinies of Umbria were closely tied until the
12th century.
In the late 11th and early 12th
centuries, the chief Umbrian cities established communes, which led to
interminable strife between them and the feudal nobility, between different
communes, and between contending parties in each city. Further, the nominal
suzerainty of the Holy See collided with the temporal claims of the revived
empire. Acceptance of the overlordship of the papacy under Innocent III
(1198-1216) did not greatly alter the political realities, though it put
an end to the Duchy of Spoleto. The Holy Roman emperors Otto IV and Frederick
II both sought repeatedly to reestabish imperial power by force but always
failed.
During this period of upheaval,
Umbria became the scene of a great religious revival centering around the
activities of St. Francis of Assisi (c. 1181-1226). In the 13th century,
the region took the lead in art when the construction and decoration of
the Church of St. Francis at Assisi attracted painters from other parts
of Italy: Giunta Pisano, Giovanni Cimabue, Giotto, Simone Martini, and
Pietro Lorenzetti. This artistic development was shared by Perugia, Gubbio,
Città di Castello, Todi, Spoleto, and Orvieto.
In the late 14th and early 15th
centuries, the cities were subjected to the rule of condottieri, usually
outsiders, who often ruled on the nominal behalf of the papacy. After the
Great Schism, the popes redoubled their efforts to bring the Umbrian cities
under their direct rule but did not completely do so until 1540, during
the papacy of Paul III.
In 1798, after the first invasion
of Napoleon, Umbria briefly formed part of the Roman Republic. In 1808
it was annexed to the French Empire as the department of Trasimeno. After
the restoration of papal sovereignty in 1814, liberal and nationalist opinion
took ever-increasing hold in Umbria and led to political agitation and
conspiracies, including revolts in 1831, 1848, and 1859. Finally, in September
1860, Umbria was occupied by the forces of Victor Emmanuel II; shortly
thereafter, it voted to join the Kingdom of Sardinia, which in 1861 became
the Kingdom of Italy.
Veneto, or Venetia,
a region in northeastern Italy. Veneto has an area of 7,092 square miles
(18,368 sq km) and comprises the provinces of Belluno, Padua, Rovigo, Treviso,
Venice, Verona, and Vicenza. Veneto is bounded on the north by the Carnic
Alps on the Austrian frontier; on the northwest, by Trentino-Alto Adige
and the Dolomites; on the southwest, by Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna, with
Lake Garda and the Po River; on the southeast by the Gulf of Venice in
the Adriatic Sea; and, on the east, by Friuli-Venezia Giulia.
Geography. The topography of Veneto
consists of two clearly separate zones: the Venetian Plain and the mountainous
area of the Dolomites and the Alps. There is a narrow transition zone of
hilly country. About half of the region is plains, a third mountains, and
the remainder hills.
The Venetian Alps descend in a
series of limestone highlands from about 9,000 feet (2,700 meters) above
sea level in the Dolomites to 5,000 to 6,000 feet (1,500-1,850 meters)
in more isolated blocks. The region's rivers, the Po, Adige, Brenta, Piave,
and Livenza cross the flat lowland of Veneto and reach the sea through
swampy deltas. South of Vicenza, the volcanic hills of Monti Berici and
the Colli Euganei rise abruptly from the plain.
The climate varies with the elevation,
being coldest in the mountains and, in summer, quite hot on the plain.
Rainfall, everywhere abundant, ranges from 80 to 125 inches (2,000-3,150
mm) in the mountains to about 25 to 35 inches (635-900 mm) on the plain.
Late spring and fall have the maximum precipitation.
Wheat and maize are the principal
crops. They are grown on the plain. Sugar beets and hemp are grown in the
Padua district and the Polesine (the province of Rovigo) and tobacco is
grown in the Brenta Valley, Verona, and the lower Po Plain. Also of importance
are vineyards and orchards in the hills and green vegetables and potatoes
in the Venetian estuary. Cattle are raised extensively on the plain. The
Venetian Lagoon is an important fishing area and Chioggia is a leading
fishing port.
Veneto had 4,363,157 inhabitants
in 1991. The largest cities are Venice, Verona, and Padua.
History. At the time of the Roman
conquest, Veneto was occupied by a variety of peoples, including Celts
and Veneti. With the decline of the empire, it was occupied successively
by Ostrogoths, Byzantines, Lombards, and Franks. However, the invasion
of Attila in 452 led to the depopulation of large areas, and to the abandonment
of many cities. Some of the survivors sought refuge in the lagoon region
of Venice, thus originating the city. Venice long chose to preserve a political
connection with the Byzantine Empire, however tenuous, and thus lived a
life separate from that of the Venetian Plain. The latter became a part
of the Holy Roman Empire under various feudal lords and signori,
such as the La Scala, Carrara, Este, Visconti, and other families, as well
as under the patriarch-dukes of Aquileia, in the Friuli. But by the early
15th century, most of Veneto had been acquired by the Republic of Venice.
The republic came to an end in
1797. During the Napoleonic era, the region underwent Austrian and French
rule and for a time was incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy. By the
Treaty of Vienna (1815), it became part of the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom,
under the Hapsburgs. In 1866 it passed to Italy and in World War I was
the scene of bitter fighting, notably at the battles of the Piave and Vittorio
Veneto. After World War II the province of Udine, formerly part of Veneto,
was included in the new region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia.